Articles | Volume 3, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/pb-3-51-2016
© Author(s) 2016. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Special issue:
https://doi.org/10.5194/pb-3-51-2016
© Author(s) 2016. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
07 Sep 2016
Research article |
| 07 Sep 2016
Intestinal parasite communities of six sympatric lemur species at Kirindy Forest, Madagascar
Andrea Springer
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
current address: Institute for Parasitology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559 Hanover, Germany
Peter M. Kappeler
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
Department of Sociobiology/Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Kellnerweg 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
Related authors
No articles found.
Lilith Sidler, Johanna Rode-White, and Peter M. Kappeler
Primate Biol., 11, 13–17, https://doi.org/10.5194/pb-11-13-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/pb-11-13-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Reports of male dominance in greater bamboo lemurs were not supported by data. We studied agonistic behavior in one captive group and could confirm this assertion, which sets this species apart from all other group-living lemurs.
Cited articles
Alexander, R. D.: The evolution of social behavior, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 5, 325–383, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001545, 1974.
Anderson, R. M. and May, R. M.: Directly transmitted infectious diseases: control by vaccination, Science, 215, 1053–1060, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7063839, 1982.
Anderson, R. M., May, R. M., Joysey, K., Mollison, D., Conway, G. R., Cartwell, R., Thompson, H. V., and Dixon, B.: The invasion, persistence and spread of infectious diseases within animal and plant communities [and discussion], Philos. T. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 314, 533–570, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1986.0072, 1986.
Ash, L. R. and Orihel, T. C.: Parasites, a guide to laboratory procedures and identification, American Society of Clinical Pathologists, Chicago, 328 pp., 1987.
Banks, D. J. D., Singh, R., Barger, I. A., Pratap, B., and Le Jambre, L. F.: Development and survival of infective larvae of Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus colubriformis on pasture in a tropical environment, Int. J. Parasitol., 20, 155–160, https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7519(90)90095-5, 1990.
Besier, R. B., and Dunsmore, J. D.: The ecology of Haemonchus contortus in a winter rainfall region in Australia: the development of eggs to infective larvae, Vet. Parasitol., 45, 275–292, https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4017(93)90082-X, 1993.
Blanco, M. B. and Zehr, S. M.: Striking longevity in a hibernating lemur, J. Zool., 296, 177–188, https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12230, 2015.
Bordes, F., Morand, S., Kelt, D. A., and Van Vuren, D. H.: Home range and parasite diversity in mammals, Am. Nat., 173, 467–474, 2009.
Charles-Smith, L. E., Cowen, P., and Schopler, R.: Environmental and physiological factors contributing to outbreaks of Cryptosporidium in Coquerel's Sifaka (Propithecus coquereli) at the Duke Lemur Center: 1999–2007, J. Zoo Wildl. Med., 41, 438–444, https://doi.org/10.1638/2009-0160.1, 2010.
Clough, D.: Gastro-intestinal parasites of red-fronted lemurs in Kirindy Forest, Western Madagascar, J. Parasitol., 96, 245–251, https://doi.org/10.1645/ge-2258.1, 2010.
Clough, D., Heistermann, M., and Kappeler, P. M.: Host intrinsic determinants and potential consequences of parasite infection in free-ranging red-fronted lemurs (Eulemur fulvus rufus), Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 142, 441–452, https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21243, 2010.
Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., Doyle, W. J., Miller, G. E., Frank, E., Rabin, B. S., and Turner, R. B.: Chronic stress, glucocorticoid receptor resistance, inflammation, and disease risk, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 109, 5995–5999, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118355109, 2012.
Coltman, D. W., Pilkington, J. G., Smith, J. A., and Pemberton, J. M.: Parasite-mediated selection against inbred soay sheep in a free-living, island population, Evolution, 53, 1259–1267, https://doi.org/10.2307/2640828, 1999.
Cooper, N., Kamilar, J. M., and Nunn, C. L.: Host longevity and parasite species richness in mammals, PLoS ONE, 7, e42190, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0042190, 2012.
Cox, F. E. G.: Concomitant infections, parasites and immune responses, Parasitology, 122, S23–S38, https://doi.org/10.1017/S003118200001698X, 2001.
Dammhahn, M. and Kappeler, P.: Comparative feeding ecology of sympatric Microcebus berthae and M. murinus, Int. J. Primatol, 29, 1567–1589, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-008-9312-3, 2008.
Dammhahn, M. and Kappeler, P. M.: Stable isotope analyses reveal dense trophic species packing and clear niche differentiation in a Malagasy primate community, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 153, 249–259, https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22426, 2014.
Delahay, R. J., Speakman, J. R., and Moss, R.: The energetic consequences of parasitism: effects of a developing infection of Trichostrongylus tenuis (Nematoda) on red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) energy balance, body weight and condition, Parasitology, 110, 473–482, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182000064817, 1995.
Denegri, G. M.: Review of oribatid mites as intermediate hosts of tapeworms of the Anoplocephalidae, Exp. Appl. Acarol., 17, 567–580, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00053486, 1993.
Donati, G., Lunardini, A., and Kappeler, P. M.: Cathemeral activity of red-fronted brown lemurs (Eulemur fulvus rufus) in the Kirindy Forest/CFPF, in: New Directions in Lemur Studies, edited by: Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ganzhorn, J. U., and Goodman, S. M., Springer US, Boston, MA, 119–137, 1999.
Eberle, M. and Kappeler, P. M.: Family insurance: kin selection and cooperative breeding in a solitary primate (Microcebus murinus), Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 60, 582–588, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-006-0203-3, 2006.
Ezenwa, V. O.: Host social behavior and parasitic infection: a multifactorial approach, Behav. Ecol., 15, 446–454, https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arh028, 2004.
Ezenwa, V. O. and Jolles, A. E.: Opposite effects of anthelmintic treatment on microbial infection at individual versus population scales, Science, 347, 175–177, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1261714, 2015.
Ezenwa, V. O., Price, S. A., Altizer, S., Vitone, N. D., and Cook, K. C.: Host traits and parasite species richness in even and odd-toed hoofed mammals, Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla, Oikos, 115, 526–536, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2006.0030-1299.15186.x, 2006.
Fietz, J. and Ganzhorn, U. J.: Feeding ecology of the hibernating primate Cheirogaleus medius: how does it get so fat?, Oecologia, 121, 157–164, https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420050917, 1999.
Fischer, K. E. and Austad, S. N.: The development of small primate models for aging research, Inst. Labor. Animal Res. J., 52, 78–88, https://doi.org/10.1093/ilar.52.1.78, 2011.
Freeland, W. J.: Mangabey (Cerocebus albigena) movement patterns in relation to food availability and fecal contamination, Ecology, 61, 1297–1303, 1980.
Ganzhorn, J. U., Wright, P. Ñ., and Ratsimbazafy, J.: Primate communities: Madagascar, in: Primate communities, edited by: Fleagle, J. G., Janson, C. H., and Reed, K., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 75–89, 1999.
Gregory, R., Keymer, A., and Harvey, P.: Helminth parasite richness among vertebrates, Biodivers. Conserv., 5, 985–997, 1996.
Guégan, J.-F. and Kennedy, C. R.: Maximum local helminth parasite community richness in British freshwater fish: a test of the colonization time hypothesis, Parasitology, 106, 91–100, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182000074862, 1993.
Guégan, J.-F., Lambert, A., Lévêque, C., Combes, C., and Euzet, L.: Can host body size explain the parasite species richness in tropical freshwater fishes?, Oecologia, 90, 197–204, 1992.
Hämäläinen, A., Dammhahn, M., Aujard, F., Eberle, M., Hardy, I., Kappeler, P. M., Perret, M., Schliehe-Diecks, S., and Kraus, C.: Senescence or selective disappearance? Age trajectories of body mass in wild and captive populations of a small-bodied primate, P. Roy. Soc. B, 281, 20140830, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.0830, 2014.
Hämäläinen, A., Heistermann, M., and Kraus, C.: The stress of growing old: sex- and season-specific effects of age on allostatic load in wild grey mouse lemurs, Oecologia, 178, 1063–1075, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-015-3297-3, 2015a.
Hämäläinen, A., Raharivololona, B., Ravoniarimbinina, P., and Kraus, C.: Host sex and age influence endoparasite burdens in the gray mouse lemur, Front. Zool, 12, 25, 2015b.
Hart, B. L.: Behavioral adaptations to pathogens and parasites: Five strategies, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 14, 273–294, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0149-7634(05)80038-7, 1990.
Hillegass, M. A., Waterman, J. M., and Roth, J. D.: Parasite removal increases reproductive success in a social African ground squirrel, Behav. Ecol., 21, 696–700, https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arq041, 2010.
Hoby, S., Schwarzenberger, F., Doherr, M. G., Robert, N., and Walzer, C.: Steroid hormone related male biased parasitism in chamois, Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra, Vet. Parasitol., 138, 337–348, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.01.028, 2006.
Hudson, P. J., Dobson, A. P., and Newborn, D.: Do parasites make prey vulnerable to predation? Red grouse and parasites, J. Anim. Ecol., 61, 681–692, 1992.
Hudson, P. J., Dobson, A. P., and Newborn, D.: Prevention of population cycles by parasite removal, Science, 282, 2256–2258, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.282.5397.2256, 1998.
Huffman, M., Gotoh, S., Turner, L., Hamai, M., and Yoshida, K.: Seasonal trends in intestinal nematode infection and medicinal plant use among chimpanzees in the Mahale Mountains, Tanzania, Primates, 38, 111–125, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02382002, 1997.
Irwin, M. T. and Raharison, J.-L.: A review of the endoparasites of the lemurs of Madagascar, Malagasy Nature, 2, 66–93, 2009.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Version 2015-4, http://www.iucnredlist.org, last access: 15 February 2016.
Kamiya, T., O'Dwyer, K., Nakagawa, S., and Poulin, R.: What determines species richness of parasitic organisms? A meta-analysis across animal, plant and fungal hosts, Biol. Rev., 89, 123–134, https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12046, 2014.
Kappeler, M. P.: Intrasexual selection in Mirza coquereli: evidence for scramble competition polygyny in a solitary primate, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 41, 115–127, https://doi.org/10.1007/s002650050371, 1997.
Kappeler, P. M. and Fichtel, C.: A 15-year perspective on the social organization and life history of sifaka in Kirindy Forest, in: Long-Term Field Studies of Primates, edited by: Kappeler, P. M. and Watts, D. P., Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany, 101–121, 2012.
Klein, S. L.: Hormonal and immunological mechanisms mediating sex differences in parasite infection, Parasite Immunol., 26, 247–264, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00710.x, 2004.
Kreisinger, J., Bastien, G., Hauffe, H. C., Marchesi, J., and Perkins, S. E.: Interactions between multiple helminths and the gut microbiota in wild rodents, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B, 370, 20140295, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0295, 2015.
Kuris, A. M., Blaustein, A. R., and Alio, J. J.: Hosts as islands, Am. Nat., 116, 570–586, 1980.
Lahann, P. and Dausmann, K. H.: Live fast, die young: flexibility of life history traits in the fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius), Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 65, 381–390, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-010-1055-4, 2010.
Larsen, P. A., Hayes, C. E., Williams, C. V., Junge, R. E., Razafindramanana, J., Mass, V., Rakotondrainibe, H., and Yoder, A. D.: Blood transcriptomes reveal novel parasitic zoonoses circulating in Madagascar's lemurs, Biol. Lett., 12, 20150829, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0829, 2016.
Lee, D. L. E.: The biology of nematodes, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, 2002.
Lewis, R. J. and Kappeler, P. M.: Seasonality, body condition, and timing of reproduction in Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi in the Kirindy Forest, Am. J. Primatol., 67, 347–364, https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20187, 2005.
Loudon, J. E. and Sauther, M.: Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) and ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) endoparasitism at the Bezà Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madag. Conserv. Dev., 8, 21–28, 2013.
Lynsdale, C. L., Santos, D. J., Hayward, A. D., Mar, K. U., Htut, W., Aung, H. H., Soe, A. T., and Lummaa, V.: A standardised faecal collection protocol for intestinal helminth egg counts in Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl., 4, 307–315, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijppaw.2015.06.001, 2015.
MacIntosh, A. J. J., Jacobs, A., Garcia, C., Shimizu, K., Mouri, K., Huffman, M. A., and Hernandez, A. D.: Monkeys in the middle: Parasite transmission through the social network of a wild primate, Plos One, 7, e51144, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051144, 2012.
Martin, L. B., Weil, Z. M., and Nelson, R. J.: Seasonal changes in vertebrate immune activity: mediation by physiological trade-offs, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 363, 321–339, 2008.
McCallum, H., Barlow, N., and Hone, J.: How should pathogen transmission be modelled?, Trends Ecol. Evol., 16, 295–300, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02144-9, 2001.
Morand, S. and Harvey, P. H.: Mammalian metabolism, longevity and parasite species richness, P. Roy. Soc. B, 267, 1999–2003, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2000.1241, 2000.
Morand, S., Goüy de Bellocq, J., Stanko, M., and Miklisová, D.: Is sex-biased ectoparasitism related to sexual size dimorphism in small mammals of Central Europe?, Parasitology, 129, 505–510, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182004005840, 2004.
Morand, S.: (macro-) Evolutionary ecology of parasite diversity: From determinants of parasite species richness to host diversification, Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl., 4, 80–87, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijppaw.2015.01.001, 2015.
Muehlenbein, M. and Watts, D.: The costs of dominance: testosterone, cortisol and intestinal parasites in wild male chimpanzees, BioPsychoSocial Medicine, 4, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1186/1751-0759-4-21, 2010.
Norscia, I., Carrai, V., and Borgognini-Tarli, S. M.: Influence of dry season and food quality and quantity on behavior and feeding strategy of Propithecus verreauxi in Kirindy, Madagascar, Int. J. Primatol., 27, 1001–1022, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-006-9056-x, 2006.
Nunn, C. L. and Altizer, S.: Infectious diseases in primates: Behaviour, ecology and evolution, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 400 pp., 2006.
Nunn, C. L. and Dokey, A. T.-W.: Ranging patterns and parasitism in primates, Biol. Lett., 2, 351–354, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2006.0485, 2006.
Nunn, C. L., Altizer, S., Jones, K. E., and Sechrest, W.: Comparative tests of parasite species richness in primates, Am. Nat., 162, 597–614, 2003.
Ostner, J. and Kappeler, P. M.: Male life history and the unusual adult sex ratios of redfronted lemur, Eulemur fulvus rufus, groups, Anim. Behav., 67, 249–259, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.05.012, 2004.
Pebsworth, P. A., Archer, C. E., Appleton, C. C., and Huffman, M. A.: Parasite transmission risk from geophagic and foraging behavior in chacma baboons, Am. J. Primatol., 74, 940–947, https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22046, 2012.
Poulin, R.: Phylogeny, ecology, and the richness of parasite communities in vertebrates, Ecol. Monogr., 65, 283–302, https://doi.org/10.2307/2937061, 1995.
Poulin, R.: Macroecological patterns of species richness in parasite assemblages, Basic Appl. Ecol., 5, 423–434, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2004.08.003, 2004.
Rakotoniaina, J. H., Kappeler, P. M., Ravoniarimbinina, P., Pechouskova, E., Hämäläinen, A. M., Grass, J., Kirschbaum, C., and Kraus, C.: Does habitat disturbance affect stress, body condition and parasitism in two sympatric lemurs?, Conserv. Physiol., in press, 2016.
Rambeloson, V. R., Razanabolana, J. R., and Kappeler, P. M.: Etude des parasites intestinaux chez Propithecus verreauxi (Grandidier, 1867) avant et après la période de mise-bas, The Newsletter of the Madagascar Section of the IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group, Göttingen, 61–67, 2014.
Ramos, R. A. N., Giannelli, A., Dantas-Torres, F., Brianti, E., and Otranto, D.: Survival of first-stage larvae of the cat lungworm Troglostrongylus brevior (Strongylida: Crenosomatidae) under different conditions, Exp. Parasitol., 135, 570–572, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2013.09.009, 2013.
Ranta, E.: Gregariousness versus solitude: another look at parasite faunal richness in Canadian freshwater fishes, Oecologia, 89, 150–152, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00319028, 1992.
Rasambainarivo, F. T., Gillespie, T. R., Wright, P. C., Arsenault, J., Villeneuve, A., and Lair, S.: Survey of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in lemurs from the Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar, J. Wildl. Dis., 49, 741–743, https://doi.org/10.7589/2012-10-264, 2013.
Reynolds, L. A., Finlay, B. B., and Maizels, R. M.: Cohabitation in the intestine: Interactions among helminth parasites, bacterial microbiota, and host immunity, J. Immunol., 195, 4059–4066, https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1501432, 2015.
Richard, A. F., Rakotomanga, P., and Schwartz, M.: Demography of Propithecus verreauxi at Beza Mahafaly, Madagascar: Sex ratio, survival, and fertility, 1984–1988, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 84, 307–322, https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330840307, 1991.
Rifkin, J. L., Nunn, C. L., and Garamszegi, L. Z.: Do animals living in larger groups experience greater parasitism? A meta-analysis, Am. Nat., 180, 70–82, https://doi.org/10.1086/666081, 2012.
Schnoell, A. and Fichtel, C.: A novel feeding behaviour in wild redfronted lemurs (Eulemur rufifrons): depletion of spider nests, Primates, 54, 371–375, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-013-0356-4, 2013.
Scholz, F. and Kappeler, P. M.: Effects of seasonal water scarcity on the ranging behavior of Eulemur fulvus rufus, Int. J. Primatol, 25, 599–613, https://doi.org/10.1023/B:IJOP.0000023577.32587.0b, 2003.
Schülke, O. and Kappeler, P. M.: So near and yet so far: territorial pairs but low cohesion between pair partners in a nocturnal lemur, Phaner furcifer, Anim. Behav., 65, 331–343, https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2003.2018, 2003.
Schülke, O. and Ostner, J.: Big times for dwarfs: Social organization, sexual selection, and cooperation in the Cheirogaleidae, Evol. Anthropol., 14, 170–185, https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.20081, 2005.
Schwensow, N., Dausmann, K., Eberle, M., Fietz, J., and Sommer, S.: Functional associations of similar MHC alleles and shared parasite species in two sympatric lemurs, Infect. Genet. Evol., 10, 662–668, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2010.03.012, 2010.
Schwitzer, C., Mittermeier, R. A., Johnson, S. E., Donati, G., Irwin, M., Peacock, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Razafindramanana, J., Louis, E. E., Chikhi, L., Colquhoun, I. C., Tinsman, J., Dolch, R., LaFleur, M., Nash, S., Patel, E., Randrianambinina, B., Rasolofoharivelo, T., and Wright, P. C.: Averting lemur extinctions amid Madagascar's political crisis, Science, 343, 842–843, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1245783, 2014.
Sheldon, B. C. and Verhulst, S.: Ecological immunology: costly parasite defences and trade-offs in evolutionary ecology, Trends Ecol. Evol., 11, 317–321, https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(96)10039-2, 1996.
Springer, A.: Patterns of parasitism in wild Verreaux's sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi) at Kirindy Forest, Madagascar: Assessing the role of host behavior, Doctoral dissertation, Veterinary University of Hannover, Hannover, 222 pp., 2015.
Turner, W. C. and Getz, W. M.: Seasonal and demographic factors influencing gastrointestinal parasitism in ungulates of Etosha National Park, J. Wildl. Dis., 46, 1108–1119, 2010.
VanderWaal, K., Atwill, E., Hooper, S., Buckle, K., and McCowan, B.: Network structure and prevalence of Cryptosporidium in Belding's ground squirrels, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 67, 1951–1959, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-013-1602-x, 2013.
Vitone, N. D., Altizer, S., and Nunn, C. L.: Body size, diet and sociality influence the species richness of parasitic worms in anthropoid primates, Evol. Ecol. Res., 6, 183–199, 2004.
Webster Marketon, J. I. and Glaser, R.: Stress hormones and immune function, Cell. Immunol., 252, 16–26, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellimm.2007.09.006, 2008.
Wood, C. L. and Johnson, P. T. J.: A world without parasites: exploring the hidden ecology of infection, Front. Ecol. Environ., 13, 425–434, https://doi.org/10.1890/140368, 2015.
Zinner, D., Hilgartner, R. D., Kappeler, P. M., Pietsch, T., and Ganzhorn, J. U.: Social organization of Lepilemur ruficaudatus, Int. J. Primatol., 24, 869–888, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024684907250, 2003.
Short summary
Parasites play important roles in ecosystems, ultimately by affecting host health and survival. Several host traits generate differences in parasite diversity among host species living in the same habitat. We examine these traits in relation to intestinal parasitism of six sympatric lemur species. We highlight the opportunities of exploring the parasitic fauna of wildlife from a community ecology and evolutionary perspective, and identify avenues for future research on lemur parasitism.
Parasites play important roles in ecosystems, ultimately by affecting host health and survival....
Special issue